Historical Background
This section will provide a historical lineage between Qutb and al-Qaida’s leadership.
Sayyid Qutb was an Egyptian author, political activist, and an Islamic revivalist. Qutb, born 1906 in Egypt, purportedly knew the Quran by heart by the age of ten. His father was a politician so Qutb became familiar of the politics of Egypt and came to despise the British Empire. Between the years 1933-1949 he served at the Egyptian Ministry of Public Instruction, in which he worked out reforms to change the education system, which never happen. Kepel (1984/2003) p. 39. In 1948 the Ministry sent him to the United States to study its educational system and he earned a master’s degree. Davis (2003) p. 17. It is believed that Qutb was sent due to his recently published articles which had infuriated the King of Egypt, Farouk who was infamous for his debauchery. Kepel (1984/2003) p. 40; and Wright (2007) p. 29. It is often stated that Qutb’s stay in the States radicalized him, or made him a more pious Muslim, which had not been the intention of his employers sending him there. Kepel (1984/2003) p. 40; and Wright (2007) p. 27. His view was that the Americans worshiped materialism instead of God, hence the United States became a symbol for all that was bad with modernity and its values (e.g. secularism, rationality, individualism, materialism etc.) Wright (2007) p. 28.; and Esposito (2003) p. 57. During Qutb’s stay in the US, the state of Israel was proclaimed and he became disappointed with the US backing of Israel: Cooper (2004) p. 122. The key point of Qutb’s aversion was the separation of the religious sphere and the secular sphere. When he returned to Egypt in 1951 he denounced the American society and the policies of Nasser, which he thought were anti-Islamic, criticism that would cost him his job. Timmerman (2004) p. 121. Later, Qutb became more involved in the Muslim Brethren and he became incarcerated several times because of his association with the organization and opposition of the Egyptian regime. During his times in prison he wrote several works including, The Shade of the Quran, The America That I Saw, and after publishing Milestones in 1964, he became incarcerated again. Euben (1999) p. 56; and Cook (2005) p. 102. Milestones were written and smuggled out of prison by a woman, Zeinab al-Ghazali: see Kenney (2006) p. 150. In it Qutb encourage the creation of a Muslim vanguard (talī´a) to implement his ideas. Qutb was executed in 1966 by the Nasser regime.
One writer who was deeply influenced by Qutb’s work was a man named Abd al-Salam Faraj. He argued in his pamphlet The Neglected Duty that jihād needed to be waged not only at the individual level, but against all enemies of Islam until it prevailed. The ones who answered this call would be granted a place in paradise. Farhana and Jerrold (2008) p. 623. Faraj together with Khalid al-Islambuli were later executed in April 1982 for their involvement in the assassination of Egypt’s president and successor of Nasser, Anwar Sadat, whose death received little grief in Egypt and elsewhere, due to Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel. Wright (2007) p. 59. In comparison, Nasser’s funeral had made millions of Egyptians to take the streets to mourn him. Esposito (2005) p. 170. The political landscape in Egypt had changed with Sadat. He drew away from the policies and ideological compass of his predecessor. He started to support the Muslim student groups in the universities (e.g. al-Azhar) against the Nasserists (i.e. socialists) and Marxists. Soon the Muslims gained more influence over these institutions. These students eventually became more critical of Sadat, who had cut Egypt’s ties with the Soviet Union in 1972, and allied it with the United States. Lapidus (2002) p. 526. Al-Islambuli who was a member of the same group as Abd al-Salam Faraj (al-jihād) stated during his trial that he had been influenced by Faraj’s pamphlet, and was seeking revenge for the imprisonment of his brother Muhammad al-Islambuli, who lead another group, al-jama´at al- islamiyya. Kepel (1984/2003) p. 192. Another defendant was a young man named Ayman al-Zawahiri, who later would become famous for being the ideologue of Usama bin Ladin. Timmerman (2004) p. 121. During the trial he became the spokesman for the defendants. Because of his good English he could address the world press. Al-Zawahiri was a leading member of Egyptian Islamic Jihad.
Al-Zawahiri and bin Ladin first meet in Jeddah in 1985. Cragin (2008) p. 1053; Wright (2007) p. 70. It is plausible that bin Ladin became influenced by al-Zawahiri’s rhetoric. In 1986 bin Ladin began to support the Egyptian financially. During the war in Afghanistan bin Ladin helped finance the Palestinian Abdullah Azzam’s recruiting bureau, MAK (maktab al-khidamāt or Office of Services). Some sources suggests that MAK was established by both bin Ladin and Azzam, and that the organization received founds the period of 1979-1989 up to $600 million; see Scheuer (2002) p. 41. Al-Qaida was probably based on MAK as its model in Nov-December 1989: Maliach (2008) p.355. Before going to Afghanistan, Azzam who was an active member of the Muslim Brethren, had taught Islamic law in universities in Cairo, Amman, and later at the King Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah, in which bin Ladin was his (as well as Muhammad Qutb’s) student. Gold (2003) p. 94-95, 143; Scheuer (2002) p. 85. The aim of the organization was to support and transfer Arabs who wanted to engage the Soviet invaders. These volunteers would then be dispatched to units of the Afghan mujāhidīn. This would later become a source of disagreement between Azzam and bin Ladin, the latter wanting a separate organization for Arabs. Scheuer (2002) p. 101. It has been argued that it was al-Zawahiri who convinced bin Ladin to separate the units; Cragin (2008) p. 1054 Azzam had earlier issued a fatwā, Defense of Muslim Lands, in which he argued that it was an individual duty (fard ‘ain) as well as a collective duty (fard kifāya) to wage a defensive jihād against the invaders because the Afghans could not defend themselves on their own. Cragin (2008) p. 1051. This fatwā convinced many to sign up for jihād. Besides this fatwā, he also wrote a book with basically the same message, Join the Caravan. Azzam argues that jihād (as in war) is the ‘greater jihād’, and falsifies the Hadith which says that the inner struggle is the greater jihād. Azzam, Sheik Abdullah, Join the Caravan, English translation pdf. p. 26. Eventually, Azzam’s rising popularity among the Afghan Arabs and his leading role would be challenged by the regime in Saudi Arabia, and al-Zawahiri. The Saudis had proposed that the MAK organization elect a leader to run the organization. Their intention was to have a Saudi in this position. During a meeting with the leading figures of the organization, which was lead by bin Ladin, Azzam was furiously slandered and accused of stealing funds. Azzam was later tried and convicted for these allegations, and would have had his hands cut off would it not have been for the interference by bin Ladin. The allegations had originated from al-Zawahiri. He had argued for the excommunication (takfīr) of Muslims who were apostates, which made them legitimate targets. Azzam on the other hand contended that the struggle was to be directed against infidels only, and that al-Zawahiri’s notion of takfīr jeopardized this important effort. Wright (2007) p. 149; Cragin (2008) p. 1054. Azzam (like the Qutb brothers) was an important figure, ideologically, for the future organization of al-Qaida, which he provided “with the vision of an Islamic movement, [and] also a strategic imperative to move beyond Afghanistan […] and asserted that if Arab regimes did not help the Afghans […] they would be next.” Cragin (2008) p. 1053. Azzam, who had been the mentor of bin Ladin was assassinated in November 1989. After his death, al-Zawahiri took Azzam’s place. Azzam had been an important figure for the development of an international approach to Islam’s enemies.
After the war in Afghanistan, bin Ladin wanted to struggle against the communist regime in Yemen, but in the event of the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 al-Qaida’s objective changed. In addition, the Saudi regime’s reluctance to accept bin Ladin’s offer to protect Saudi Arabia, instead the regime chose to let US forces use Saudi soil to base their war efforts against Iraq. This asserted bin Ladin’s view that jihād needed to waged against the United States, which he regarded as the main sponsor of oppressive and infidel regimes in the Middle East. In 1991 bin Ladin left for Afghanistan, and in the following years bin Ladin issued many statements via his London based public relations office the Advisory and Reformation Committee critiquing the Saudi ulema for its benign neglect concerning the Saudi regimes un-Islamic actions. Through the same channel, bin Ladin also issued an indictment (Communiqué 17) of the Saudi regime and demanding king Fahd’s abdication. In 1996 bin Ladin on his own issued the Declaration of Jihad against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Sanctuaries. In February 1998 a group, the World Islamic Front, issued another declaration of war against the United States and the Jews, which would receive more notice than the former declaration. Among the signatories were bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri and three other representatives of radical groups. Later that year, the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, were bombed, killing well over 300 and wounded over 5000. A year prior to 9/11, suicide bombers attacked the US Cole in Aden, Yemen.
References:
Books Books that do not have any printing location are e-books.
Abdo, Geneive (2002) No God but God: Egypt and the Triumph of Islam. OUP.
Akbarzadeh, Shahram & Mansouri, Fethi (2007) Islam and Political Violence. Tauris Academic Studies.
Azzam, Sheik Abdullah, Join the Caravan, English translation in pdf.
Cook, David (2005) Understanding Jihad. University of California Press.
Cooper, Barry (2004) New Political Religions, or an Analysis of Modern Terrorism. University of Missouri Press.
Davis, Joyce M. (2003) Martyrs: Innocence, Vengeance, and Despair in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan
Esposito, John L. (2003) Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. NY, OUP.
Esposito, John L. (2005) Islam. The Straight Path. NY, OUP, 3rd ed.
Euben, Roxanne L. (1999) Enemy in the Mirror. Princeton University Press.
Gold, Dore (2003) Hatred’s Kingdom. How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism. D.C., Regnery Publishing, Inc.
Habeck, Mary (2006) Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror. Yale, Yale University Press.
Hamdi, Hassan A. (2004), Al-Qaeda: The Background of the Pursuit for Global Jihad, Uppsala, Almqvist & Wiksell International.
Ibrahim, Raymond (2007) The Al Qaeda Reader. NY, Broadway Books.
Kenney, Jeffrey T. (2006) Muslim Rebels: Kharijite Rhetoric and the Politics of Extremism in Modern Egypt. Oxford University Press.
Kepel, Gilles (2004) The War for Muslim Minds. Islam and the West. Cambridge, The Belknap Press of HUP.
Kepel, Gilles (1984/2003) Muslim Extremism in Egypt. The Prophet and the Pharaoh. California, UCP.
Lapidus, Ira M. (2002) A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge, CUP, 2nd ed.
Lawrence, Bruce [ed.] (2005) Messages to the World. The Statements of Osama bin Laden. NY, Verso.
Mansfield, Laura (2006) His Own Words: Translation and Analysis of the Writings of Dr. Ayman Al Zawahiri. USA, Lulu, TLG Publications. (Includes Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner)
Ménoret, Pascal (2005) The Saudi Enigma. A History. London, Zed Books.
Noorani, A. G. (2002) Islam & Jihad. Prejudice versus Reality. London, Zed Books Ltd.
Pape, Robert A. (2006) Dying To Win. The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. NY, Random House Trade Paperbacks.
Qutb, Sayyid (2001) Milestones. New Delhi, Islamic Book Service.
Qutb, Sayyid (1973) Signposts Along the Way. Beirut/ Cairo, Dar al-Shurūq.
Arabic: سيد قطب (١٩٧٣)"معالم فى الطريق"..بيروت،القاهرة ..طبعة : دار الشروق
Can be downloaded in pdf [http://www.mediafire.com/?tkh4wjcqzli]
Scheuer, Michael (published anonymously) (2002), Through Our Enemies’ Eyes: Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America, D.C., Brassey’s, first edition.
Scheuer, Michael (published anonymously) (2004), Imperial Hubris- Why the West Is Losing the War on Terror, Dulles, Virginia, Brassey’s, first edition.
Timmerman, Kenneth R. (2004) Preachers of Hate. Islam and the War on America, NY, Three Rivers Press.
Wehr, Hans (1994) The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. 4th ed.
Wright, Lawrence (2007), The Looming Tower- Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, New York, Vintage Books.
Al-Zawahiri, Ayman (2001) Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner. (Originally published on a website منبر التوحيد والجهاد / minbar al-tawhid wa al-jihad, English: “pulpit of monotheism and jihad”, www.tawhed.net or www.tawhed.ws (arabic).
Zeidan, David (2003) Resurgence of Religion: A Comparative Study of Selected Themes in Christian and Islamic Fundamentalist Discourses. Brill, N.H.E.J., N.V. Koninklijke, Boekhandel en Drukkerij
Articles
Cragin, Kim R, (2008) “Early History of Al-Qa’ida”, The Historical Journal, Vol. 51, No. 4.
Evans, Alexander (2007) “The Man and the Message: The World According To Bin Laden”, Asian Affairs, Vol. XXXVIII, No. II, Routledge.
Gwynne, Rosalind W. (2006)”Usama bin Ladin, the Qur’an and Jihad”, Religion, Vol. 36.
Hansen, Hendrik & Kainz, Peter (2007) “Radical Islamism and Totalitarian Ideology: a Comparison of Sayyid Qutb’s Islamism with Marxism and National Socialism”, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, Vol. 8, No. 1.
Shepard, William (1997) “The Myth of Progress in the Writings of Sayyid Qutb”, Religion, Vol. 27.
This section will provide a historical lineage between Qutb and al-Qaida’s leadership.
Sayyid Qutb was an Egyptian author, political activist, and an Islamic revivalist. Qutb, born 1906 in Egypt, purportedly knew the Quran by heart by the age of ten. His father was a politician so Qutb became familiar of the politics of Egypt and came to despise the British Empire. Between the years 1933-1949 he served at the Egyptian Ministry of Public Instruction, in which he worked out reforms to change the education system, which never happen. Kepel (1984/2003) p. 39. In 1948 the Ministry sent him to the United States to study its educational system and he earned a master’s degree. Davis (2003) p. 17. It is believed that Qutb was sent due to his recently published articles which had infuriated the King of Egypt, Farouk who was infamous for his debauchery. Kepel (1984/2003) p. 40; and Wright (2007) p. 29. It is often stated that Qutb’s stay in the States radicalized him, or made him a more pious Muslim, which had not been the intention of his employers sending him there. Kepel (1984/2003) p. 40; and Wright (2007) p. 27. His view was that the Americans worshiped materialism instead of God, hence the United States became a symbol for all that was bad with modernity and its values (e.g. secularism, rationality, individualism, materialism etc.) Wright (2007) p. 28.; and Esposito (2003) p. 57. During Qutb’s stay in the US, the state of Israel was proclaimed and he became disappointed with the US backing of Israel: Cooper (2004) p. 122. The key point of Qutb’s aversion was the separation of the religious sphere and the secular sphere. When he returned to Egypt in 1951 he denounced the American society and the policies of Nasser, which he thought were anti-Islamic, criticism that would cost him his job. Timmerman (2004) p. 121. Later, Qutb became more involved in the Muslim Brethren and he became incarcerated several times because of his association with the organization and opposition of the Egyptian regime. During his times in prison he wrote several works including, The Shade of the Quran, The America That I Saw, and after publishing Milestones in 1964, he became incarcerated again. Euben (1999) p. 56; and Cook (2005) p. 102. Milestones were written and smuggled out of prison by a woman, Zeinab al-Ghazali: see Kenney (2006) p. 150. In it Qutb encourage the creation of a Muslim vanguard (talī´a) to implement his ideas. Qutb was executed in 1966 by the Nasser regime.
One writer who was deeply influenced by Qutb’s work was a man named Abd al-Salam Faraj. He argued in his pamphlet The Neglected Duty that jihād needed to be waged not only at the individual level, but against all enemies of Islam until it prevailed. The ones who answered this call would be granted a place in paradise. Farhana and Jerrold (2008) p. 623. Faraj together with Khalid al-Islambuli were later executed in April 1982 for their involvement in the assassination of Egypt’s president and successor of Nasser, Anwar Sadat, whose death received little grief in Egypt and elsewhere, due to Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel. Wright (2007) p. 59. In comparison, Nasser’s funeral had made millions of Egyptians to take the streets to mourn him. Esposito (2005) p. 170. The political landscape in Egypt had changed with Sadat. He drew away from the policies and ideological compass of his predecessor. He started to support the Muslim student groups in the universities (e.g. al-Azhar) against the Nasserists (i.e. socialists) and Marxists. Soon the Muslims gained more influence over these institutions. These students eventually became more critical of Sadat, who had cut Egypt’s ties with the Soviet Union in 1972, and allied it with the United States. Lapidus (2002) p. 526. Al-Islambuli who was a member of the same group as Abd al-Salam Faraj (al-jihād) stated during his trial that he had been influenced by Faraj’s pamphlet, and was seeking revenge for the imprisonment of his brother Muhammad al-Islambuli, who lead another group, al-jama´at al- islamiyya. Kepel (1984/2003) p. 192. Another defendant was a young man named Ayman al-Zawahiri, who later would become famous for being the ideologue of Usama bin Ladin. Timmerman (2004) p. 121. During the trial he became the spokesman for the defendants. Because of his good English he could address the world press. Al-Zawahiri was a leading member of Egyptian Islamic Jihad.
Al-Zawahiri and bin Ladin first meet in Jeddah in 1985. Cragin (2008) p. 1053; Wright (2007) p. 70. It is plausible that bin Ladin became influenced by al-Zawahiri’s rhetoric. In 1986 bin Ladin began to support the Egyptian financially. During the war in Afghanistan bin Ladin helped finance the Palestinian Abdullah Azzam’s recruiting bureau, MAK (maktab al-khidamāt or Office of Services). Some sources suggests that MAK was established by both bin Ladin and Azzam, and that the organization received founds the period of 1979-1989 up to $600 million; see Scheuer (2002) p. 41. Al-Qaida was probably based on MAK as its model in Nov-December 1989: Maliach (2008) p.355. Before going to Afghanistan, Azzam who was an active member of the Muslim Brethren, had taught Islamic law in universities in Cairo, Amman, and later at the King Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah, in which bin Ladin was his (as well as Muhammad Qutb’s) student. Gold (2003) p. 94-95, 143; Scheuer (2002) p. 85. The aim of the organization was to support and transfer Arabs who wanted to engage the Soviet invaders. These volunteers would then be dispatched to units of the Afghan mujāhidīn. This would later become a source of disagreement between Azzam and bin Ladin, the latter wanting a separate organization for Arabs. Scheuer (2002) p. 101. It has been argued that it was al-Zawahiri who convinced bin Ladin to separate the units; Cragin (2008) p. 1054 Azzam had earlier issued a fatwā, Defense of Muslim Lands, in which he argued that it was an individual duty (fard ‘ain) as well as a collective duty (fard kifāya) to wage a defensive jihād against the invaders because the Afghans could not defend themselves on their own. Cragin (2008) p. 1051. This fatwā convinced many to sign up for jihād. Besides this fatwā, he also wrote a book with basically the same message, Join the Caravan. Azzam argues that jihād (as in war) is the ‘greater jihād’, and falsifies the Hadith which says that the inner struggle is the greater jihād. Azzam, Sheik Abdullah, Join the Caravan, English translation pdf. p. 26. Eventually, Azzam’s rising popularity among the Afghan Arabs and his leading role would be challenged by the regime in Saudi Arabia, and al-Zawahiri. The Saudis had proposed that the MAK organization elect a leader to run the organization. Their intention was to have a Saudi in this position. During a meeting with the leading figures of the organization, which was lead by bin Ladin, Azzam was furiously slandered and accused of stealing funds. Azzam was later tried and convicted for these allegations, and would have had his hands cut off would it not have been for the interference by bin Ladin. The allegations had originated from al-Zawahiri. He had argued for the excommunication (takfīr) of Muslims who were apostates, which made them legitimate targets. Azzam on the other hand contended that the struggle was to be directed against infidels only, and that al-Zawahiri’s notion of takfīr jeopardized this important effort. Wright (2007) p. 149; Cragin (2008) p. 1054. Azzam (like the Qutb brothers) was an important figure, ideologically, for the future organization of al-Qaida, which he provided “with the vision of an Islamic movement, [and] also a strategic imperative to move beyond Afghanistan […] and asserted that if Arab regimes did not help the Afghans […] they would be next.” Cragin (2008) p. 1053. Azzam, who had been the mentor of bin Ladin was assassinated in November 1989. After his death, al-Zawahiri took Azzam’s place. Azzam had been an important figure for the development of an international approach to Islam’s enemies.
After the war in Afghanistan, bin Ladin wanted to struggle against the communist regime in Yemen, but in the event of the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 al-Qaida’s objective changed. In addition, the Saudi regime’s reluctance to accept bin Ladin’s offer to protect Saudi Arabia, instead the regime chose to let US forces use Saudi soil to base their war efforts against Iraq. This asserted bin Ladin’s view that jihād needed to waged against the United States, which he regarded as the main sponsor of oppressive and infidel regimes in the Middle East. In 1991 bin Ladin left for Afghanistan, and in the following years bin Ladin issued many statements via his London based public relations office the Advisory and Reformation Committee critiquing the Saudi ulema for its benign neglect concerning the Saudi regimes un-Islamic actions. Through the same channel, bin Ladin also issued an indictment (Communiqué 17) of the Saudi regime and demanding king Fahd’s abdication. In 1996 bin Ladin on his own issued the Declaration of Jihad against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Sanctuaries. In February 1998 a group, the World Islamic Front, issued another declaration of war against the United States and the Jews, which would receive more notice than the former declaration. Among the signatories were bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri and three other representatives of radical groups. Later that year, the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, were bombed, killing well over 300 and wounded over 5000. A year prior to 9/11, suicide bombers attacked the US Cole in Aden, Yemen.
References:
Books Books that do not have any printing location are e-books.
Abdo, Geneive (2002) No God but God: Egypt and the Triumph of Islam. OUP.
Akbarzadeh, Shahram & Mansouri, Fethi (2007) Islam and Political Violence. Tauris Academic Studies.
Azzam, Sheik Abdullah, Join the Caravan, English translation in pdf.
Cook, David (2005) Understanding Jihad. University of California Press.
Cooper, Barry (2004) New Political Religions, or an Analysis of Modern Terrorism. University of Missouri Press.
Davis, Joyce M. (2003) Martyrs: Innocence, Vengeance, and Despair in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan
Esposito, John L. (2003) Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. NY, OUP.
Esposito, John L. (2005) Islam. The Straight Path. NY, OUP, 3rd ed.
Euben, Roxanne L. (1999) Enemy in the Mirror. Princeton University Press.
Gold, Dore (2003) Hatred’s Kingdom. How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism. D.C., Regnery Publishing, Inc.
Habeck, Mary (2006) Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror. Yale, Yale University Press.
Hamdi, Hassan A. (2004), Al-Qaeda: The Background of the Pursuit for Global Jihad, Uppsala, Almqvist & Wiksell International.
Ibrahim, Raymond (2007) The Al Qaeda Reader. NY, Broadway Books.
Kenney, Jeffrey T. (2006) Muslim Rebels: Kharijite Rhetoric and the Politics of Extremism in Modern Egypt. Oxford University Press.
Kepel, Gilles (2004) The War for Muslim Minds. Islam and the West. Cambridge, The Belknap Press of HUP.
Kepel, Gilles (1984/2003) Muslim Extremism in Egypt. The Prophet and the Pharaoh. California, UCP.
Lapidus, Ira M. (2002) A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge, CUP, 2nd ed.
Lawrence, Bruce [ed.] (2005) Messages to the World. The Statements of Osama bin Laden. NY, Verso.
Mansfield, Laura (2006) His Own Words: Translation and Analysis of the Writings of Dr. Ayman Al Zawahiri. USA, Lulu, TLG Publications. (Includes Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner)
Ménoret, Pascal (2005) The Saudi Enigma. A History. London, Zed Books.
Noorani, A. G. (2002) Islam & Jihad. Prejudice versus Reality. London, Zed Books Ltd.
Pape, Robert A. (2006) Dying To Win. The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. NY, Random House Trade Paperbacks.
Qutb, Sayyid (2001) Milestones. New Delhi, Islamic Book Service.
Qutb, Sayyid (1973) Signposts Along the Way. Beirut/ Cairo, Dar al-Shurūq.
Arabic: سيد قطب (١٩٧٣)"معالم فى الطريق"..بيروت،القاهرة ..طبعة : دار الشروق
Can be downloaded in pdf [http://www.mediafire.com/?tkh4wjcqzli]
Scheuer, Michael (published anonymously) (2002), Through Our Enemies’ Eyes: Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America, D.C., Brassey’s, first edition.
Scheuer, Michael (published anonymously) (2004), Imperial Hubris- Why the West Is Losing the War on Terror, Dulles, Virginia, Brassey’s, first edition.
Timmerman, Kenneth R. (2004) Preachers of Hate. Islam and the War on America, NY, Three Rivers Press.
Wehr, Hans (1994) The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. 4th ed.
Wright, Lawrence (2007), The Looming Tower- Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, New York, Vintage Books.
Al-Zawahiri, Ayman (2001) Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner. (Originally published on a website منبر التوحيد والجهاد / minbar al-tawhid wa al-jihad, English: “pulpit of monotheism and jihad”, www.tawhed.net or www.tawhed.ws (arabic).
Zeidan, David (2003) Resurgence of Religion: A Comparative Study of Selected Themes in Christian and Islamic Fundamentalist Discourses. Brill, N.H.E.J., N.V. Koninklijke, Boekhandel en Drukkerij
Articles
Cragin, Kim R, (2008) “Early History of Al-Qa’ida”, The Historical Journal, Vol. 51, No. 4.
Evans, Alexander (2007) “The Man and the Message: The World According To Bin Laden”, Asian Affairs, Vol. XXXVIII, No. II, Routledge.
Gwynne, Rosalind W. (2006)”Usama bin Ladin, the Qur’an and Jihad”, Religion, Vol. 36.
Hansen, Hendrik & Kainz, Peter (2007) “Radical Islamism and Totalitarian Ideology: a Comparison of Sayyid Qutb’s Islamism with Marxism and National Socialism”, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, Vol. 8, No. 1.
Shepard, William (1997) “The Myth of Progress in the Writings of Sayyid Qutb”, Religion, Vol. 27.
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