Introduction
Aim and Purpose of the Study and Method of Research
In the post 9/11 discourse, there has been much focus on Egyptian Islamic thinker and writer Sayyid Qutb and his book Milestones, which has been called the Mein Kampf of al-Qaida. The resemblance between Milestones and Lenin’s pamphlet What Is to Be Done? is hinted by a chapter in Kepel’s book, with the same name as Lenin’s work: Kepel (2003) p. 52; and Abdo (2002) p.13. The book and its author have influenced many radical groups and individuals to rebel against authoritative and apostate regimes in the Islamic world. Akbarzadeh & Mansouri (2007) p. 59; and Hansen & Kainz (2007) p. 57. Qutb has also been referred to as the ‘brains’ behind Usama bin Ladin. Timmerman (2004) p. 121; Abdo (2002) p. 23. It is common knowledge that Usama bin Ladin and Ayman al-Zawahiri studied under Muhammad Qutb (Sayyid’s brother) in the King Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah in the 1970s. Timmerman (2004) p. 121; Evans (2007) p. 226. The Egyptian radical, al-Zawahiri also knows Qutb’s works well partly due to his own political activism in Egypt. The impact of Qutb’s work on radical Islam has already been established by many scholars and commentators. More rarely, though, do studies compare specific terms and concepts; the link between Qutb and militant groups such as al-Qaida, has often been assumed, for much of the literature and articles of the history of al-Qaida always seem to include a chapter about Qutb. Another reason for the lack of comparative studies could be that these groups are being grouped together because of their resemblances, even as the differences sometimes outnumber the similarities, in regards to for example ideology, religion, and objectives. Qutb’s notion of a Muslim vanguard is also an important factor; all radical groups that resort to violence in the name of Islam do all have this in common with the vanguard. For example, Hansen & Kainz (University of Passau) argue that to analyse the statements of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri is
not very fruitful when the purpose is to understand the rationale underlying their actions. These statements are usually limited to a call for global jihad against the United States and the West, while failing to reveal a deeper justification for this jihad. It is therefore difficult for analysts to reconstruct the political theory of radical Islamism on the basis of these texts and more fruitful to delve for such a theory into the work of Sayyid Qutb […], who is generally considered to be the spiritual father of al-Qaeda. Hansen & Kainz (2007) p. 57.
[initial and last italics added]
Although their purpose is not to study al-Qaida per se but radical Islamism, they are de facto implying that they can make inferences about what al-Qaida’s political theory would look like, simply by studying Qutb. This statement is indeed awkward, simply because there is a lot we can learn about motivation and their ideal society from studying the rhetoric of bin Ladin, and especially of al-Zawahiri. The danger of such research mentioned above is that it runs the risk of ascribing features, qualities or views to bin Ladin et al, which they do not necessarily have. Although, this essay’s concern is not to reconstruct a political theory, but by studying the concept of jāhilīyyah, one cannot help but to stumble over ideas of the ideal society, that would enable such exercise. For these reasons it would be interesting compare the statements of the al-Qaida leadership with Qutb’s Milestones.
The purpose of this essay is to examine in what way Qutb’s ideas, as presented in Milestones, are shown in the rhetoric of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri. Two important key concepts of Qutb’s line of thought are jāhilīyyah and jihād. These terms will provide a demarcation of the scope of the research, and by concentrating on these words the aim is to make inferences about Milestones and its influence on the rhetoric of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri. In addition to these concepts, this essay will try to show each person’s view of the ideal society.
The method of research consists of a few steps. The first step is to analyze the key concepts in Milestones. The next step is to find these concepts in the statements of the al-Qaida leadership, and the last step is to compare bin Ladin’s and al-Zawahiri’s perceptions and understandings of these concepts with that of Qutb. By using this method, which partly resembles innehållsanalysen and with a touch of comparative method, hopefully the purpose of the essay will be reached.
Research Questions
How are Qutb’s ideas’, as presented in Milestones, shown in the rhetoric of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri?
What is Qutb’s, bin Laden’s and al-Zawahiri’s understanding of the concepts of jāhilīyyah and jihād?
What is their idea of an ideal society under Islam?
Differences and similarities?
Literature and Sources
The bulk of the sources are secondary in the sense that they are translations from the original language, i.e. Arabic, into English. Both the Arabic and English versions of Qutb’s Milestones has been used, as for the works on bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri, they consist mainly of translations. This has caused some problem due to the fact that the concepts under scrutiny (i.e. jāhilīyyah and jihād) have in some sources been translated into English. In some of the translations of bin Ladin communiqués, jahili and jāhilīyyah are translated as ‘pagan’ and ‘paganism’. See for example: Lewis (2004). To stay true to the method of the research, some effort has been made to find the original interviews, video and audio messages of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri, which has sometimes led the search to somewhat murky places on the internet. For example the search for the ‘impossible to find’ Arabic version of al-Zawahiri’s: Knights under the Prophet’s banner. The purpose has been to use the original Arabic sources as reference to the English translations due to the inconsistency found in the sources regarding the use of Arabic terminology. Another issue has to do with Qutb’s Milestones. There are many different versions in both Arabic and English. A reason for this is Muhammad Qutb’s effort to make the message of Milestones more acceptable to different target audiences and to overbuild differences between the interpretations of its message. In particular, he sought to reconcile his brother’s work with the Muslim Brethren who had rejected Milestones as extremist. Since the 1970s, the Muslim Brethren has denounced Qutb’s means of achieving their political goals. Today, their policy is political change through reform: Pape (2006) p. 106. When publishing new editions, Muhammad Qutb made the radical message sound more moderate and deliberately toned it down. Kepel (2004) p. 174-175. For this reason, it can be difficult to know whether the edition used in this essay is free from bias, and one should remain critical of whatever edition one may posses. The edition that is held by Muhammad Qutb to be authentic or original was published in 1973 by an Arabic publishing company, Dar al-Shurūq. In this essay, this version and another Arabic version have been used as reference to the main English edition. In an attempt to ‘authenticate’ the English volume used in this essay, without having to read the whole volume, the excerpts of interests for this inquiry have been checked against both Arabic volumes and they have all turned out to be in consistency with one and another. Thus, the English version appears to be on par with both, and could therefore be considered ‘safe’ using. In addition, the message of the book does not seem to be ‘toned down’, all though, parts of it not used in this essay could perhaps have been articulated in way to better suit a Western audience. Further more, the key concepts (jāhilīyyah and jihād) appear to be in accord with the literature on the subject.
For the historical background, a variety of sources have been used, consisting mostly of academic as well as non-academic articles, and literature. The authors are made up of historians, political scientists and journalists. The historians in the field of religion are for example Esposito, Kenney, Zeidan, Gwynne, Shepard, Lawrence, and Cook. The latter, Cook, have been criticized for being an orientalist, i.e. he tends to view Islam as an intolerant religion. Historians with the Middle East close to heart are Ménoret, and Lapidus. Political scientists or the like are Akbarzadeh, Cooper, Kepel, Euben, Habeck, Hassan, Pape, Cragin, and Hansen. One of the more important authors is Gilles Kepel who always seems to be quoted in works concerning the subject of Muslim extremism. Journalists are for example Abdo, Davis, and Wright.
Key Terminology
In this essay, special attention is given on certain Arabic terms which are jāhilīyyah and jihād. These words occur frequently in Milestones and as will be shown, also in the statements of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri. This section will provide a small introduction to these words (and related words) and their meaning, which is essential for understanding this essay.
The Arabic word jāhilīyyah belongs to the root j-h-l (jahila, جهل), which contain words that denote ignorance of some sort or barbarism. The term jāhilīyyah (جاهِلِية) commonly refers to a state of ignorance of God, which existed on the Arabian Peninsula in the pre-Islamic era (al-‘asr al-jāhilī). This is by far the most important term used by Qutb. He does not exclusively use the term to describe a historical state, but more importantly, to describe a current condition, or in other words “[w]hereas ancient jahiliyya was a function of simple ignorance, modern jahiliyya is a conscious usurpation of God’s authority.” Euben (1999) p. 57. In addition, Qutb uses jāhilīyyah as a methodology or criteria to decide which individuals, governments and states that can be considered not Muslim. Zeidan (2003) p. 54. Bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri use this word. They also use other words to denote un-Islamic elements such as; kufr (infidelity/unbelief/ungratefulness), mushrik (polytheism, from the word shirk), murtadd (apostate).
The word jihād (جهاد) belongs to the root j-h-d,(جهد) and comes from the third form of the verb jahada (to endeavour, to strive, to fight, to wage holy war), which is a commonly used form in the Quran. For example in: 5:35, 9:16, 22:78, 25:52. The term often takes the form of an imperative, for example in 25:52: “So obey not the disbelievers [al-kāfirīn], but strive against them [jāhid-hum] (by preaching) with the utmost endeavour [jihādan] with it (the Quran).” The word jihād usually means strive, fight, battle. Other words of the same root are for example jahd (strain, effort) jihādī (fighting), mujāhada (battle), majhūd (endeavor), mujāhid (freedom fighter), and mujtahid, meaning diligent. In sum, all these words relate to efforts. Important to note is that jihād does not exclusively mean striving as in violence, but also an individual’s inner struggle of faith against temptation. In other words, the term has multiple meanings and the meaning ascribed to it in the post-9/11 discourse has predominately been understood as war as a religious duty, which has frequently been endorsed by people trying to vilify Islam. Also used is the inner struggle version, which has been advanced in defence of Islam. The notion of the greater jihād (war) and the lesser jihād (inner struggle) is familiar to most but that this tradition has been deemed false by some, is probably not. Abdullah Azzam rendered it a fabrication without base: Azzam, Join the Caravan, p. 27. The idea of greater jihad came with Islamic ascetism and mysticism. But “traditions indicating that jihad meant spiritual warfare are […] absent from any of the official, canonical collections [except for that of al-Tirmidhi].”; Cook (2005) p. 35. According to some, the Quran (4:95) clearly states that those who do not fight for God (i.e. staying home without any good excuse) are not the equals of those who fight and the fighters (al-mujāhidīn) can expect great awards. In contrast, verse 22:78 is held to refer to inner struggle;Cook (2005) p. 32. “And strive for Allah as you ought to strive […] perform the prayers, give the alms and hold fast to Allah.” Thus, according to some scholars the Quran cannot support the notion of equality between those who fight and those who do not. Ibid. p. 33. Whether or not this is true some scholars and commentators tend to forget that a majority of the world’s Muslims strive for God peacefully and that only a small percentage strives through fighting. The purpose is not to take sides here but to illustrate the different positions. Jihād should perhaps be understood as striving for God, which could be done in many different ways.
In addition to jihād and jāhilīyyah there are other words that deserves an explanation. One is the Arabic term sharī´ah (شريعة). This word literally means water hole but is generally known as the canonical law of Islam. Qutb, bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri all mention the Sharia laws as the base or fundament for any Islamic country or nation-state. It should be noted that the meaning attributed to these laws are solely the latter three’s own. Closely related is al-Zawahiri’s notion of a fundamentalist state in the Middle East. The term fundamentalist is used by al-Zawahiri to describe his own movement. It is fundamentalist because it wants the Sharia to be followed in a draconian fashion, without exceptions, since it is in accordance with God’s revelation and will.
*
Aim and Purpose of the Study and Method of Research
In the post 9/11 discourse, there has been much focus on Egyptian Islamic thinker and writer Sayyid Qutb and his book Milestones, which has been called the Mein Kampf of al-Qaida. The resemblance between Milestones and Lenin’s pamphlet What Is to Be Done? is hinted by a chapter in Kepel’s book, with the same name as Lenin’s work: Kepel (2003) p. 52; and Abdo (2002) p.13. The book and its author have influenced many radical groups and individuals to rebel against authoritative and apostate regimes in the Islamic world. Akbarzadeh & Mansouri (2007) p. 59; and Hansen & Kainz (2007) p. 57. Qutb has also been referred to as the ‘brains’ behind Usama bin Ladin. Timmerman (2004) p. 121; Abdo (2002) p. 23. It is common knowledge that Usama bin Ladin and Ayman al-Zawahiri studied under Muhammad Qutb (Sayyid’s brother) in the King Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah in the 1970s. Timmerman (2004) p. 121; Evans (2007) p. 226. The Egyptian radical, al-Zawahiri also knows Qutb’s works well partly due to his own political activism in Egypt. The impact of Qutb’s work on radical Islam has already been established by many scholars and commentators. More rarely, though, do studies compare specific terms and concepts; the link between Qutb and militant groups such as al-Qaida, has often been assumed, for much of the literature and articles of the history of al-Qaida always seem to include a chapter about Qutb. Another reason for the lack of comparative studies could be that these groups are being grouped together because of their resemblances, even as the differences sometimes outnumber the similarities, in regards to for example ideology, religion, and objectives. Qutb’s notion of a Muslim vanguard is also an important factor; all radical groups that resort to violence in the name of Islam do all have this in common with the vanguard. For example, Hansen & Kainz (University of Passau) argue that to analyse the statements of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri is
not very fruitful when the purpose is to understand the rationale underlying their actions. These statements are usually limited to a call for global jihad against the United States and the West, while failing to reveal a deeper justification for this jihad. It is therefore difficult for analysts to reconstruct the political theory of radical Islamism on the basis of these texts and more fruitful to delve for such a theory into the work of Sayyid Qutb […], who is generally considered to be the spiritual father of al-Qaeda. Hansen & Kainz (2007) p. 57.
[initial and last italics added]
Although their purpose is not to study al-Qaida per se but radical Islamism, they are de facto implying that they can make inferences about what al-Qaida’s political theory would look like, simply by studying Qutb. This statement is indeed awkward, simply because there is a lot we can learn about motivation and their ideal society from studying the rhetoric of bin Ladin, and especially of al-Zawahiri. The danger of such research mentioned above is that it runs the risk of ascribing features, qualities or views to bin Ladin et al, which they do not necessarily have. Although, this essay’s concern is not to reconstruct a political theory, but by studying the concept of jāhilīyyah, one cannot help but to stumble over ideas of the ideal society, that would enable such exercise. For these reasons it would be interesting compare the statements of the al-Qaida leadership with Qutb’s Milestones.
The purpose of this essay is to examine in what way Qutb’s ideas, as presented in Milestones, are shown in the rhetoric of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri. Two important key concepts of Qutb’s line of thought are jāhilīyyah and jihād. These terms will provide a demarcation of the scope of the research, and by concentrating on these words the aim is to make inferences about Milestones and its influence on the rhetoric of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri. In addition to these concepts, this essay will try to show each person’s view of the ideal society.
The method of research consists of a few steps. The first step is to analyze the key concepts in Milestones. The next step is to find these concepts in the statements of the al-Qaida leadership, and the last step is to compare bin Ladin’s and al-Zawahiri’s perceptions and understandings of these concepts with that of Qutb. By using this method, which partly resembles innehållsanalysen and with a touch of comparative method, hopefully the purpose of the essay will be reached.
Research Questions
How are Qutb’s ideas’, as presented in Milestones, shown in the rhetoric of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri?
What is Qutb’s, bin Laden’s and al-Zawahiri’s understanding of the concepts of jāhilīyyah and jihād?
What is their idea of an ideal society under Islam?
Differences and similarities?
Literature and Sources
The bulk of the sources are secondary in the sense that they are translations from the original language, i.e. Arabic, into English. Both the Arabic and English versions of Qutb’s Milestones has been used, as for the works on bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri, they consist mainly of translations. This has caused some problem due to the fact that the concepts under scrutiny (i.e. jāhilīyyah and jihād) have in some sources been translated into English. In some of the translations of bin Ladin communiqués, jahili and jāhilīyyah are translated as ‘pagan’ and ‘paganism’. See for example: Lewis (2004). To stay true to the method of the research, some effort has been made to find the original interviews, video and audio messages of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri, which has sometimes led the search to somewhat murky places on the internet. For example the search for the ‘impossible to find’ Arabic version of al-Zawahiri’s: Knights under the Prophet’s banner. The purpose has been to use the original Arabic sources as reference to the English translations due to the inconsistency found in the sources regarding the use of Arabic terminology. Another issue has to do with Qutb’s Milestones. There are many different versions in both Arabic and English. A reason for this is Muhammad Qutb’s effort to make the message of Milestones more acceptable to different target audiences and to overbuild differences between the interpretations of its message. In particular, he sought to reconcile his brother’s work with the Muslim Brethren who had rejected Milestones as extremist. Since the 1970s, the Muslim Brethren has denounced Qutb’s means of achieving their political goals. Today, their policy is political change through reform: Pape (2006) p. 106. When publishing new editions, Muhammad Qutb made the radical message sound more moderate and deliberately toned it down. Kepel (2004) p. 174-175. For this reason, it can be difficult to know whether the edition used in this essay is free from bias, and one should remain critical of whatever edition one may posses. The edition that is held by Muhammad Qutb to be authentic or original was published in 1973 by an Arabic publishing company, Dar al-Shurūq. In this essay, this version and another Arabic version have been used as reference to the main English edition. In an attempt to ‘authenticate’ the English volume used in this essay, without having to read the whole volume, the excerpts of interests for this inquiry have been checked against both Arabic volumes and they have all turned out to be in consistency with one and another. Thus, the English version appears to be on par with both, and could therefore be considered ‘safe’ using. In addition, the message of the book does not seem to be ‘toned down’, all though, parts of it not used in this essay could perhaps have been articulated in way to better suit a Western audience. Further more, the key concepts (jāhilīyyah and jihād) appear to be in accord with the literature on the subject.
For the historical background, a variety of sources have been used, consisting mostly of academic as well as non-academic articles, and literature. The authors are made up of historians, political scientists and journalists. The historians in the field of religion are for example Esposito, Kenney, Zeidan, Gwynne, Shepard, Lawrence, and Cook. The latter, Cook, have been criticized for being an orientalist, i.e. he tends to view Islam as an intolerant religion. Historians with the Middle East close to heart are Ménoret, and Lapidus. Political scientists or the like are Akbarzadeh, Cooper, Kepel, Euben, Habeck, Hassan, Pape, Cragin, and Hansen. One of the more important authors is Gilles Kepel who always seems to be quoted in works concerning the subject of Muslim extremism. Journalists are for example Abdo, Davis, and Wright.
Key Terminology
In this essay, special attention is given on certain Arabic terms which are jāhilīyyah and jihād. These words occur frequently in Milestones and as will be shown, also in the statements of bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri. This section will provide a small introduction to these words (and related words) and their meaning, which is essential for understanding this essay.
The Arabic word jāhilīyyah belongs to the root j-h-l (jahila, جهل), which contain words that denote ignorance of some sort or barbarism. The term jāhilīyyah (جاهِلِية) commonly refers to a state of ignorance of God, which existed on the Arabian Peninsula in the pre-Islamic era (al-‘asr al-jāhilī). This is by far the most important term used by Qutb. He does not exclusively use the term to describe a historical state, but more importantly, to describe a current condition, or in other words “[w]hereas ancient jahiliyya was a function of simple ignorance, modern jahiliyya is a conscious usurpation of God’s authority.” Euben (1999) p. 57. In addition, Qutb uses jāhilīyyah as a methodology or criteria to decide which individuals, governments and states that can be considered not Muslim. Zeidan (2003) p. 54. Bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri use this word. They also use other words to denote un-Islamic elements such as; kufr (infidelity/unbelief/ungratefulness), mushrik (polytheism, from the word shirk), murtadd (apostate).
The word jihād (جهاد) belongs to the root j-h-d,(جهد) and comes from the third form of the verb jahada (to endeavour, to strive, to fight, to wage holy war), which is a commonly used form in the Quran. For example in: 5:35, 9:16, 22:78, 25:52. The term often takes the form of an imperative, for example in 25:52: “So obey not the disbelievers [al-kāfirīn], but strive against them [jāhid-hum] (by preaching) with the utmost endeavour [jihādan] with it (the Quran).” The word jihād usually means strive, fight, battle. Other words of the same root are for example jahd (strain, effort) jihādī (fighting), mujāhada (battle), majhūd (endeavor), mujāhid (freedom fighter), and mujtahid, meaning diligent. In sum, all these words relate to efforts. Important to note is that jihād does not exclusively mean striving as in violence, but also an individual’s inner struggle of faith against temptation. In other words, the term has multiple meanings and the meaning ascribed to it in the post-9/11 discourse has predominately been understood as war as a religious duty, which has frequently been endorsed by people trying to vilify Islam. Also used is the inner struggle version, which has been advanced in defence of Islam. The notion of the greater jihād (war) and the lesser jihād (inner struggle) is familiar to most but that this tradition has been deemed false by some, is probably not. Abdullah Azzam rendered it a fabrication without base: Azzam, Join the Caravan, p. 27. The idea of greater jihad came with Islamic ascetism and mysticism. But “traditions indicating that jihad meant spiritual warfare are […] absent from any of the official, canonical collections [except for that of al-Tirmidhi].”; Cook (2005) p. 35. According to some, the Quran (4:95) clearly states that those who do not fight for God (i.e. staying home without any good excuse) are not the equals of those who fight and the fighters (al-mujāhidīn) can expect great awards. In contrast, verse 22:78 is held to refer to inner struggle;Cook (2005) p. 32. “And strive for Allah as you ought to strive […] perform the prayers, give the alms and hold fast to Allah.” Thus, according to some scholars the Quran cannot support the notion of equality between those who fight and those who do not. Ibid. p. 33. Whether or not this is true some scholars and commentators tend to forget that a majority of the world’s Muslims strive for God peacefully and that only a small percentage strives through fighting. The purpose is not to take sides here but to illustrate the different positions. Jihād should perhaps be understood as striving for God, which could be done in many different ways.
In addition to jihād and jāhilīyyah there are other words that deserves an explanation. One is the Arabic term sharī´ah (شريعة). This word literally means water hole but is generally known as the canonical law of Islam. Qutb, bin Ladin and al-Zawahiri all mention the Sharia laws as the base or fundament for any Islamic country or nation-state. It should be noted that the meaning attributed to these laws are solely the latter three’s own. Closely related is al-Zawahiri’s notion of a fundamentalist state in the Middle East. The term fundamentalist is used by al-Zawahiri to describe his own movement. It is fundamentalist because it wants the Sharia to be followed in a draconian fashion, without exceptions, since it is in accordance with God’s revelation and will.
*
References:
Books Books that do not have any printing location are e-books.
Abdo, Geneive (2002) No God but God: Egypt and the Triumph of Islam. OUP.
Akbarzadeh, Shahram & Mansouri, Fethi (2007) Islam and Political Violence. Tauris Academic Studies.
Azzam, Sheik Abdullah, Join the Caravan, English translation in pdf.
Cook, David (2005) Understanding Jihad. University of California Press.
Cooper, Barry (2004) New Political Religions, or an Analysis of Modern Terrorism. University of Missouri Press.
Davis, Joyce M. (2003) Martyrs: Innocence, Vengeance, and Despair in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan
Esposito, John L. (2003) Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. NY, OUP.
Esposito, John L. (2005) Islam. The Straight Path. NY, OUP, 3rd ed.
Euben, Roxanne L. (1999) Enemy in the Mirror. Princeton University Press.
Gold, Dore (2003) Hatred’s Kingdom. How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism. D.C., Regnery Publishing, Inc.
Habeck, Mary (2006) Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror. Yale, Yale University Press.
Hamdi, Hassan A. (2004), Al-Qaeda: The Background of the Pursuit for Global Jihad, Uppsala, Almqvist & Wiksell International.
Ibrahim, Raymond (2007) The Al Qaeda Reader. NY, Broadway Books.
Kenney, Jeffrey T. (2006) Muslim Rebels: Kharijite Rhetoric and the Politics of Extremism in Modern Egypt. Oxford University Press.
Kepel, Gilles (2004) The War for Muslim Minds. Islam and the West. Cambridge, The Belknap Press of HUP.
Kepel, Gilles (1984/2003) Muslim Extremism in Egypt. The Prophet and the Pharaoh. California, UCP.
Lapidus, Ira M. (2002) A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge, CUP, 2nd ed.
Lawrence, Bruce [ed.] (2005) Messages to the World. The Statements of Osama bin Laden. NY, Verso.
Mansfield, Laura (2006) His Own Words: Translation and Analysis of the Writings of Dr. Ayman Al Zawahiri. USA, Lulu, TLG Publications. (Includes Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner)
Ménoret, Pascal (2005) The Saudi Enigma. A History. London, Zed Books.
Noorani, A. G. (2002) Islam & Jihad. Prejudice versus Reality. London, Zed Books Ltd.
Pape, Robert A. (2006) Dying To Win. The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. NY, Random House Trade Paperbacks.
Qutb, Sayyid (2001) Milestones. New Delhi, Islamic Book Service.
Qutb, Sayyid (1973) Signposts Along the Way. Beirut/ Cairo, Dar al-Shurūq.
Arabic: سيد قطب (١٩٧٣)"معالم فى الطريق"..بيروت،القاهرة ..طبعة : دار الشروق
Can be downloaded in pdf [http://www.mediafire.com/?tkh4wjcqzli]
Scheuer, Michael (published anonymously) (2002), Through Our Enemies’ Eyes: Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America, D.C., Brassey’s, first edition.
Scheuer, Michael (published anonymously) (2004), Imperial Hubris- Why the West Is Losing the War on Terror, Dulles, Virginia, Brassey’s, first edition.
Timmerman, Kenneth R. (2004) Preachers of Hate. Islam and the War on America, NY, Three Rivers Press.
Wehr, Hans (1994) The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. 4th ed.
Wright, Lawrence (2007), The Looming Tower- Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, New York, Vintage Books.
Al-Zawahiri, Ayman (2001) Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner. (Originally published on a website منبر التوحيد والجهاد / minbar al-tawhid wa al-jihad, English: “pulpit of monotheism and jihad”.
Zeidan, David (2003) Resurgence of Religion: A Comparative Study of Selected Themes in Christian and Islamic Fundamentalist Discourses. Brill, N.H.E.J., N.V. Koninklijke, Boekhandel en Drukkerij
Articles
Cragin, Kim R, (2008) “Early History of Al-Qa’ida”, The Historical Journal, Vol. 51, No. 4.
Evans, Alexander (2007) “The Man and the Message: The World According To Bin Laden”, Asian Affairs, Vol. XXXVIII, No. II, Routledge.
Gwynne, Rosalind W. (2006)”Usama bin Ladin, the Qur’an and Jihad”, Religion, Vol. 36.
Hansen, Hendrik & Kainz, Peter (2007) “Radical Islamism and Totalitarian Ideology: a Comparison of Sayyid Qutb’s Islamism with Marxism and National Socialism”, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, Vol. 8, No. 1.
Shepard, William (1997) “The Myth of Progress in the Writings of Sayyid Qutb”, Religion, Vol. 27.
Books Books that do not have any printing location are e-books.
Abdo, Geneive (2002) No God but God: Egypt and the Triumph of Islam. OUP.
Akbarzadeh, Shahram & Mansouri, Fethi (2007) Islam and Political Violence. Tauris Academic Studies.
Azzam, Sheik Abdullah, Join the Caravan, English translation in pdf.
Cook, David (2005) Understanding Jihad. University of California Press.
Cooper, Barry (2004) New Political Religions, or an Analysis of Modern Terrorism. University of Missouri Press.
Davis, Joyce M. (2003) Martyrs: Innocence, Vengeance, and Despair in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan
Esposito, John L. (2003) Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. NY, OUP.
Esposito, John L. (2005) Islam. The Straight Path. NY, OUP, 3rd ed.
Euben, Roxanne L. (1999) Enemy in the Mirror. Princeton University Press.
Gold, Dore (2003) Hatred’s Kingdom. How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism. D.C., Regnery Publishing, Inc.
Habeck, Mary (2006) Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror. Yale, Yale University Press.
Hamdi, Hassan A. (2004), Al-Qaeda: The Background of the Pursuit for Global Jihad, Uppsala, Almqvist & Wiksell International.
Ibrahim, Raymond (2007) The Al Qaeda Reader. NY, Broadway Books.
Kenney, Jeffrey T. (2006) Muslim Rebels: Kharijite Rhetoric and the Politics of Extremism in Modern Egypt. Oxford University Press.
Kepel, Gilles (2004) The War for Muslim Minds. Islam and the West. Cambridge, The Belknap Press of HUP.
Kepel, Gilles (1984/2003) Muslim Extremism in Egypt. The Prophet and the Pharaoh. California, UCP.
Lapidus, Ira M. (2002) A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge, CUP, 2nd ed.
Lawrence, Bruce [ed.] (2005) Messages to the World. The Statements of Osama bin Laden. NY, Verso.
Mansfield, Laura (2006) His Own Words: Translation and Analysis of the Writings of Dr. Ayman Al Zawahiri. USA, Lulu, TLG Publications. (Includes Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner)
Ménoret, Pascal (2005) The Saudi Enigma. A History. London, Zed Books.
Noorani, A. G. (2002) Islam & Jihad. Prejudice versus Reality. London, Zed Books Ltd.
Pape, Robert A. (2006) Dying To Win. The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. NY, Random House Trade Paperbacks.
Qutb, Sayyid (2001) Milestones. New Delhi, Islamic Book Service.
Qutb, Sayyid (1973) Signposts Along the Way. Beirut/ Cairo, Dar al-Shurūq.
Arabic: سيد قطب (١٩٧٣)"معالم فى الطريق"..بيروت،القاهرة ..طبعة : دار الشروق
Can be downloaded in pdf [http://www.mediafire.com/?tkh4wjcqzli]
Scheuer, Michael (published anonymously) (2002), Through Our Enemies’ Eyes: Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America, D.C., Brassey’s, first edition.
Scheuer, Michael (published anonymously) (2004), Imperial Hubris- Why the West Is Losing the War on Terror, Dulles, Virginia, Brassey’s, first edition.
Timmerman, Kenneth R. (2004) Preachers of Hate. Islam and the War on America, NY, Three Rivers Press.
Wehr, Hans (1994) The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. 4th ed.
Wright, Lawrence (2007), The Looming Tower- Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11, New York, Vintage Books.
Al-Zawahiri, Ayman (2001) Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner. (Originally published on a website منبر التوحيد والجهاد / minbar al-tawhid wa al-jihad, English: “pulpit of monotheism and jihad”.
Zeidan, David (2003) Resurgence of Religion: A Comparative Study of Selected Themes in Christian and Islamic Fundamentalist Discourses. Brill, N.H.E.J., N.V. Koninklijke, Boekhandel en Drukkerij
Articles
Cragin, Kim R, (2008) “Early History of Al-Qa’ida”, The Historical Journal, Vol. 51, No. 4.
Evans, Alexander (2007) “The Man and the Message: The World According To Bin Laden”, Asian Affairs, Vol. XXXVIII, No. II, Routledge.
Gwynne, Rosalind W. (2006)”Usama bin Ladin, the Qur’an and Jihad”, Religion, Vol. 36.
Hansen, Hendrik & Kainz, Peter (2007) “Radical Islamism and Totalitarian Ideology: a Comparison of Sayyid Qutb’s Islamism with Marxism and National Socialism”, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, Vol. 8, No. 1.
Shepard, William (1997) “The Myth of Progress in the Writings of Sayyid Qutb”, Religion, Vol. 27.
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